What is Data, explain type of sources to collect data and information?
Ans: Data is a collection of facts, such as values or measurements. It can be numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just descriptions of things. Data can be qualitative (descriptive information) or quantitative (numerical information).
Data is typically the results of measurements and can be visualized using graphs or images. Raw data, i.e., unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, characters; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next. Field data refers to raw data collected in an uncontrolled in situ environment. Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording.
For many years, scientific methods have dominated the field of evaluation. These methods seek to establish cause-effect relationships, produce generalizable results and provide quantitative data through structured data collection procedures. Alternative methods have gained recognition over the past years in the effort to understand complex social conditions. Given the varied approaches to evaluation, there is no single list or categorization of data collection methods. Methods such as observation and open-ended interviews seek to explore situations in depth. As a result, we now have an array of techniques to choose from. A listof methods which can be followed are listed below. Some of which are useful for collecting data in social science research methodologies (survey, case study). Some are geared toward collecting quantitative (numeric) data; others toward qualitative (narrative) data. Some may be more appropriate for certain samples or resource considerations. There are two types of data:
Primary Data: collected for the first time.
Secondary Data: those which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
METHODS TO COLLECT PRIMARY DATA:
1. Observation method:
Commonly used in behavioural sciences. It is the gathering of data by investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations. Observation is a primary method of collecting data by human, mechanical, electrical or electronics means with direct or indirect contact. As per Langley P, “Observations involve looking and listening very carefully in order to discover particular information.”Observation is the main source of information in the field research. The researcher goes into the field and observes the conditions in their natural state.
The observation is important and actual behavior of people is observed and not what people say they did or feel. For example, people value health but they would pick up food they know to fatty. It is useful when the subject cannot provide information or can only provide inaccurate information like people addicted to drugs. But at the same time, in observation the researcher does not get any insight into what people may be thinking. There are many types of observation such as:
1. Direct or indirect
2. Structured (for descriptive research) or Unstructured (for exploratory research)
3. Participant or Non- participant observation
4. Disguised observation
5. Obtrusive or non-obtrusive
2. Survey method:
This method refers to collecting standardized information through structured questionnaires to generate quantitative data. Surveys may be mailed (surface and electronic), completed on-site or administered through interviews, conducted either face-to-face, by telephone or electronically. Sample surveys use probability sampling which allows to generalize findings to a larger population, while informal surveys do not. Surveys are based on short interviews either face-to-face or on telephone. These are based on simple questions. Also, there are computer-assisted interviews. Survey can be performed by sending a questionnaire and quantifying the response when questionnaires are returned. This approach is most suited for gathering descriptive information. In a survey, usually general questions are asked to know what customers or subjects do and think. But if one wants to know ‘why they feel that way’, one has to conduct an in-depth research. In survey, answers may depend on the mood of the respondent. As such, the survey shows how one feels at one particular time
There are many types of surveys such as:
1. Structured Surveys: In this method formal lists of questions are asked of all respondents in the same way.
2. Unstructured Surveys: In this method interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview according to their answers.
3. Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviors and thoughts.
4. Indirect Approach: The researcher ask question and from the response, the researcher may be able to discover the answer of his/ her question.
3. Contact methods:
Information may be collected by:
1. Mail
2. Telephone
3. Personal interview:
In this method information is collected by talking with and listening to people. Interviews range on a continuum from those which are tightly structured (as in a survey) to those that are free-flowing and conversational.
4. In-depth techniques: In in-depth research, long and probing interviews are taken to find out customers satisfaction and loyalty, usage, awareness and brand recognition etc. and this can be done as by ways mentioned below:
· Focus group
· Panels
· In-depth interviews
· Projective methods
5. Case study: is an in-depth examination of a particular case program, group of participants, single individual, site, or location. Case studies rely on multiple sources of information and methods to provide as complete a picture as possible.
6. Group assessment: collecting and evaluating information through the use of group processes such as a nominal group technique, focus group, Delphi, brainstorming, and community forums.
7. Expert or peer review: examination by a review committee, a panel of experts or peers.
8. Questionnaires :A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers. The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves. It consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order. These forms are actually mailed to the respondent who was expected to read and understand the questions and reply to them by writing the relevant answers in the spaces provided. Its purpose is to collect information from the respondents who are scattered over a vast area. Questionnaire include open-ended questions and close-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow the respondent considerable freedom in answering. However, questions are answered in details. Close-ended questions has to be answered by the respondent by choosing an answer from the set of answers given under a question just by ticking.
Following are the different types of Questionnaire used by social scientists and anthropologists.
· Structured questionnaire: It include definite, concrete and pre-obtained questions which were prepared in advance.
· Closed-form questionnaire: It is used when categorized data is required.
· Pictorial questionnaire: It is used to promote interest in answering after seeing the pictures on a particular theme.
· Unstructured questionnaire: Designed to obtained view points, opinions, attitudes and to show relationships and inter-connections between data.
9. Schedule:A schedule is a structure of set of questions on a given topic which are asked by the interviewer or investigator personally. The order of questions, the language of the questions and the arrangement of parts of the schedule are not changed. However, the investigator can explain the questions if the respondent faces any difficulty. It contains direct questions as well as questions in tabular form.Schedule include open-ended questions and close-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow the respondent considerable freedom in answering. However, questions are answered in details. Close-ended questions has to be answered by the respondent by choosing an answer from the set of answers given under a question just by ticking
4. Experimental Method:
1. Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment. Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Such research is characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
· Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
· Then should work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
· Then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
2. Simulation: use of models or mock ups to solicit perceptions and reactions.
5. Other Methods:
· Portfolio review: a collection of materials, including samples of work that encompassthe breadth and scope of the programor activity being evaluated.
· Testimonial:a statement made by aperson indicating personal responses andreactions.
· Test: use of established standards to assessknowledge, skill, or performance such as apen-and-pencil or skills test.
· Photograph, slide, and video:uses photographyto capture visual images.
· Diary and journal: recording of eventsover time revealing the personal perspectiveof the writer/recorder.
· Log:recording of chronological entrieswhich are usually brief and factual.
· Document analysis:use of content analysisand other techniques to analyze andsummarize printed material and existinginformation.
· Action cards: use of index cards on which participants record what they did the action and when they reached their goal; primarily used in self-assessment.
· Problem story: narrative account of past, present, or future situations as a means of identifying perceptions. Using fictional characters externalizes the problem situation.
· Creative expression: use of art forms to represent peoples ideas and feelings through stories, drama, dance, music, art.
· Unobtrusive measures: gathering information without the knowledge of the people in the setting; for example, examination of record books to identify areas of greatest activity; unobtrusive observations of playground interactions to record aggressive behaviours.
· On some occasions, variety of non traditional techniques are also used for getting people to talk or express themselves for evaluation purposes.
METHODS TO COLLECT SECONDARY DATA:
Sources can be classified as:
1. Paper-based sources – books, journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes, directories, research reports, conference papers, market reports, annual reports, internal records of organizations, newspapers and magazines.
2. Electronic sources– CD-ROMs, on-line databases, Internet, videos and broadcasts.
The main sources of qualitative and quantitative secondary data include the following:
1. Official or government sources.
2. Unofficial or general business sources.
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